Battle of Bassorah:

For other battles in the area, see Battle of Basra.

The Battle of Bassorah, Battle of the Camel, or Battle of Jamal was a battle that took place at Basra, Iraq in 656 between forces allied to Ali ibn Abi Talib (Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Rightly Guided Caliph and Commander of the Faithful) and forces allied to Aisha (widow of Muhammad, and called Mother of the Believers (Arabic: Umm-al-Mu'mineen)) who wanted justice on the perpetrators of the assassination of the previous caliph Uthman.

History

Prelude

In 656, Uthman ibn Affan was besieged in his own house, surrounded by rebels that were angry with Uthman's caliphate. The rebels refused to provide Uthman with food or water, and kept him imprisoned, hoping to force his abdication. Uthman was eventually murdered.

Ali was offered the caliphate by a large number of Muslims of Medina after Uthman's death. He is reported to have refused the caliphate at first but later he, upon their insistence, accepted.

These events displeased Aisha and a large number of most significant sahaba (companions) of Muhammad. They evidently believed that Ali was wrong to occupy himself in other tasks before finding Uthman's murderer. They challenged Ali's caliphate under the claim that Ali had been unsuccessful in finding Uthman's murderer, claiming Qisas for Uthman.

Massing support

Aisha was returning to Medina from Mecca after Hajj, but turned back when she heard the news of Uthman's assassination and the accession of Ali to the caliphate. Aisha's two brothers-in-law Talha and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, who were considered to be two of the most significant Sahaba of Muhammad, also arrived in Mecca. Uthman's governor in Mecca was Abd-Allah ibn Umayr al-Hadrami. Marwan ibn al-Hakam and other members of Banu Umayya, Uthman's clan, were staying as his guests. All of them held a meeting.

Aisha got Talha's and Zubayr's support despite them having already given their oath of allegiance to Ali. Both had been previously nominated for the caliphate by Umar, the second caliph, before his death; but Uthman was appointed for the caliphate in priority to them. Aisha also managed to enlist the support of the powerful clan of Banu Umayyah, to whom Uthman had belonged. The ex-governors of Uthman, who had been displaced by Ali, also joined her. Yala, the ex-governor of Yemen, had carried off to Mecca a large sum of treasure when he was displaced. He gave over to Aisha sixty thousand dinars, along with six hundred camels; one of which was very large and well-bred, valued at 200 gold pieces. It was named Al-Askar and was especially presented for Aisha's personal transportation.

Having completed her preparations for the battle, Aisha unsuccessfully tried to convince one of the previous wives of Muhammad, Umm Salama, to side with her. Umm Salama instead tried, and almost succeeded in convincing Aisha to abandon her plan; but Zubayr's son Abd Allah Ibn al-Zubayr persuaded her to proceed. Aisha had also tried to persuade another of Muhammad's previous wives, Hafsa bint Umar, to follow her; but Hafsa's brother Ibn Umar stopped her from doing so. Aisha mounted on a litter on the camel al-Askar, and marched from Mecca at the head of 1,000 men. On her right was Talha, and on her left Zubayr.

The other widows of Muhammad residing in Mecca accompanied her a little way and then returned. As they parted the company gave vent to their feelings and wept bitterly at the lowering outlook; "there was no such weeping, before or after, as then; so that day was called The Day of Tears.".^[1] On their way many more joined them, and their numbers swelled to 3,000.

A month after the death of Uthman, and during the march of the Meccan troops, queries began to arise if either Talha or Zubayr would appoint himself as Caliph, in the event of a victory. Thus, the position of the Imamat (leadership) of prayers, which was correlated to the Islamic caliphate, was disputed among the troops. But Aisha, seeking to cease the strife, gave shura (Mutual Consultations) statement that neither Talha nor Zubayr should lead the prayer, and Zubayr's son Abdullah Ibn Zubair should lead the prayers instead. And so it was later given out that the choice of the future Caliph, in case of victory of the Meccan troops, should be left to the men of Medina.

The ex-governor of Kufa named Sa'id, who had previously sworn allegiance to the Meccan party, distrusted the motives of the rebel leaders, and he at the last moment withdrew with his troops, and returned back to Mecca. As the remaining cavalcade swept by Sa'id, shouting that they were on their way to destroy the murderers of Uthman, Sa'id cried out, "Whither way? the objects of your vengeance (meaning Talha and Zubayr) are on their camels' humps before your eyes. Slay them both and return to your homes!"

Ali receives news

When rumours of the defection first reached Medina, Ali refused to move against the malcontents so long as no overt act of rebellion threatened the unity of the Islamic nation. But shortly after, news arrived of the design on Basra. At first, Ali thought that the insurgents had not made Kufa, with its greater Bedouin population, their object. Ibn Abbas, however, pointed out that Basra was really the more dangerous, because fewer of the leading chiefs were there, able to curb the people and repress rebellion.

Ali admitted this; and alarmed, gave orders that the column destined for Syria should march instead to Nejd, hoping thereby to intercept the insurgents on their way to Basra. A column of 900 men was got together, at the head of which Ali marched hastily in pursuit of the insurgents; but on striking the Mecca road he found that they had already passed. Not being equipped for further advance, he halted there. Messengers were sent to Kufa, Egypt, and elsewhere, demanding reinforcements; and for these the Caliph waited before he went forward.

Basra

The rebel army reached Basra, and encamped close by. Messages were exchanged, and Uthman ibn Hanif, the governor of Basra, aware that the cry of vengeance on the regicides really covered designs against his chief Ali ibn Abi Taleb, called an assembly to try the temper of the people. Finding from the uproar that the strangers had a strong party in the city, he put on his armour, and, followed by the larger portion of the citizens, went forth to meet the enemy, who, on their side, was joined from the town by all the malcontents. A parley ensued. Talha, Zubair, and Aisha all three declaimed against the murderers of Uthman and demanded justice.

The other side were equally loud in their protestations against Aisha and her attack upon their city. They said it was a shame and a slight on the legacy and memory of Muhammad for her to forego the sanctity of the Hijab, and the proprieties of Umm al-Mu'minin ("Mother of the Faithful"). Ali had been elected and saluted caliph; and now Talha and Zubayr were violating the allegiance which they had been among the very first to swear it.

Both protested that the oath had been forced upon them. On this point the controversy turned; and from words they fell to blows. Night interposed, but fighting was resumed the following day; and with so serious a loss to Basra that a truce was called and agreement come to, on the understanding that the facts should be ascertained from Medina. If force had really been put upon Zubayr and Talha to take the oath, then Uthman ibn Hanif, the governor, would retire and leave the city in their hands.

Envoy to Medina

An envoy accredited by both sides was deputed to Medina. He arrived there while and forthwith proclaimed his mission before the assembled City. The people at first were silent. At last, one declared that both Talha and Zubayr had done homage under compulsion, whereupon a great tumult arose; and the envoy, having seen and heard enough to prove diversity of view, at once took leave.

When the news of these things reached the caliph Ali ibn Abi Taleb, who was with his army in Najd, he addressed a letter to his Basra governor Uthman ibn Hanif. "There was no compulsion," he wrote, "on either Talha or Zubayr; neither of these my adversaries was constrained otherwise than by the will of the majority. By the Lord! if their object be to make me abdicate, they are without excuse; if it be any other thing, I am ready to consider it."

So when the envoy returned from Medina, and when upon his report the insurgents called on Uthman ibn Hanif to evacuate the City according to agreement, he produced the caliph's letter and refused. But the insurgents had already obtained a footing within the city. Arming themselves, they repaired to the Mosque for evening service, and, the night being dark and stormy, were not perceived until they had overpowered the bodyguard, entered the adjoining palace, and made a prisoner of the governor Uthman ibn Hanif.

Hasan and Kufa

Finding that the insurgent troops, with Aisha, Zubayr, and Talha had already passed, Ali halted for a while on the road to Basra, waiting to strengthen his army, for although joined on his march by certain loyal tribes, he still felt too weak for immediate action.

To Kufa, he addressed a special summons, inhabited as it was by many veterans on whose loyalty he might reasonably depend; and he added force to the call by promising that Kufa should be his seat of government.

But the summons was at the first unheeded. The City was made up of many factions; and from some of these the message of Aisha, demanding revenge for Uthman's blood, had already found response.

Abu Musa, its governor, was unequal to the emergency. Loyal to the memory of the murdered Caliph, he yet sought to allay the ferment by a neutral course, and urged the citizens to join neither party, but remain at home. A second deputation meeting with no better success, Ali bethought him of sending his elder son Hasan, in Company with Ammar ibn Yasir, the former governor of Kufa, to urge his cause.

Al-Hasan bin 'Ali was at the top of the pulpit and Ammar was below Al-Hasan. We all gathered before him. I heard Ammar saying,

The appeal of Hasan, grandson of Muhammad, had at last the desired effect. A tumult arose, and Abu Musa, unable to maintain his weak neutrality, was deposed. The Arab tribes rallied around the loyalists.

Soon 5000 men, partly by land, partly by river, set out to join the Caliph, who, advancing slowly, awaited their arrival. Thus reinforced, Ali was able at last to take the field effectively, and march on the rebellious city.

Negotiations

Basra itself was not wholly hostile, and scores of the citizens came out to join the camp of Ali. The insurgent army, which still nearly equalled that of the Caliph, now marched forth with Talha and Zubair at their head, and Aisha herself seated in a well-fenced litter of the camel al-Askar.

But Ali's thoughts were for peace if possible. The cry of Talha and Az-Zubeir was for vengeance against the murderers of Uthman; and against these, Ali as yet did not deny that justice should be dealt. But he was obliged to temporise. He had in his army great numbers of the very men who had risen against Uthman; and he felt that to inflict punishment on them, as his adversaries required, would for the present be impossible. Holding these views, he halted, still some little way from Basra, and sent forward Al-Ka'ka' (who with other leaders of renown had joined him from Kufa) to expostulate with Talha and Zubair.

As he spoke, Zubair, Talha and Aisha returned word that if these really were the sentiments of Ali, they were ready to submit. After several days spent in such negotiations, Ali, glad at the prospect of a bloodless compromise, advanced.

The recruited besiegers of Uthman in Ali's army

Ali's army recruited from the Bedawi settlements and comprised a great number of notorious besiegers of Uthman. Afraid of bringing these into contact with the heated army of his opponents, still breathing out fire and slaughter against them, Ali commanded that; none who had shared in the attack on Uthman should for the present accompany him in his advance.

Talha's troops, sworn to their destruction, were double their number, if peace were patched up, no hope remained. Reasoning thus, they held a secret conclave, and came to the conclusion that their only safety lay in precipitating hostilities, and thus forcing Ali's hand to crush their enemies. Accordingly they remained behind, but with the resolve that at the right moment they would advance and throw themselves upon the enemy.

Further negotiations

The army of Al Basra, numbering some 10,000 men, remained encamped on the outskirts of the city. Ali's force, advancing unopposed, halted within sight; and negotiations for peace went on, evidently substantial and sincere. Ali himself approached on horseback and Talha with Zubair rode forth to confer with him.

"Wherefore have ye risen against me" said Ali; "did ye not swear homage to me?" "Yea" replied Talha "but with the sword over our necks; and now our demand is that justice be executed against the murderers of Uthman." Ali replied that he no less than they held the murderers of Uthman to be guilty; he even cursed them in no measured terms, but added that for their punishment they must bide their time.

Zubair on his side was softened by certain words of Prophet Muhammad towards him which Ali recalled to his mind, and bound himself by an oath that he would not fight. Then they all retired. Both armies, understanding that negotiations were in progress, went to rest that night in security such as they had not felt for many weeks.

Surprise attack

Towards morning, a sudden shock changed the scene. The besiegers of Uthman, during the night, carried their design into execution. Led by them, squadrons of Bedawi lances bore down, while yet dark, upon the Basra tents. In a moment all was confusion. Each camp believed that it had been attacked by the other; and the dawn found both armies drawn up, as the conspirators desired, in mortal combat against each other. In vain Ali endeavoured to hold back his men. The sense of treachery embittered the conflict. It was a strange engagement,—the first in which Muslims had crossed swords with Muslims. It resembled a battle of the old Arab times, only that for tribal rivalry were now substituted other issues.

Clans were broken up, and it became in some measure a contest between the two rival cities; "The Beni Ar-Rabi'a of Al-Kufa fought against the Beni Ar-Rabi'a of Al-Basra, the Beni Modar of the one against the Beni Modar of the other," and so on, with the various tribes, and even with families, one part arrayed against the other. The Kufa ranks were urged on by the besiegers of Uthman, who felt that unless Ali conquered, they were all doomed men. The fierceness and obstinacy of the battle can be only thus accounted for. One of the combatants tells us that "when the opposing sides came together breast to breast, with a furious shock, the noise was like that of washermen at the riverside."

The attitude of the leaders was in marked contrast with the bitter struggle of the ranks. Zubair, half-hearted since his interview with Ali, left the battlefield according to his promise, and was killed in an adjoining valley. A man named Amr ibn Jarmouz had followed Zubair and murdered him while he performed Salat.

End of the battle

Marwan ibn al-Hakam shot his own general^[4] Talha who became disabled in the leg by the shot, and carried into Basra, where he died. Bereft of their leaders, the insurgent troops gave way. They were falling back upon the city, when they passed by the camel of Aisha.

Attacked fiercely from all around, she from within her litter, held the Quran and cried out,— "Slay the murderers of 'Othman." The words ran through the retiring ranks, that "the Mother of the Faithful was in peril," and they stayed their flight to rescue her. Long the conflict raged around the camel. One after another warriors rushed to seize her standard; one after another they were cut down.

Of Quraish, 70 perished by the bridle. At last, Ali, perceiving that her camel was the rallying-point of the enemy, sent one of his captains to hamstring, and thus disable it. With a loud cry the animal fell to the ground. The struggle ceased and the insurgents retired into the city.

The litter, bristling with arrows like a hedgehog, was taken down, and, by desire of Ali, placed in a retired spot, where Aisha's brother Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr pitched a tent for her.

Losses in the battle

The carnage in the ill-starred Battle of Camel (for so it came to be called) was very great. The field was covered with 10,000 bodies in equal proportion on either side; and this, notwithstanding that the victory was not followed up. Ali had given orders that no fugitive should be pursued, nor any wounded soldier slain nor plunder seized, nor the privacy of any house invaded.

Later a great trench was dug, and into it the dead were lowered, friends and foes alike. Ali, encamped for three days without the city, himself performed the funeral service. It was a new experience to bury the dead slain in battle not against the infidels, but believer fighting against believer, brother against brother. Instead of cursing the memory of his enemies, Ali spoke hopefully of the future state of such as had entered the field, on whatever side. When they brought him the sword of Zubair he cursed the man who took his life; and calling to mind the feats displayed by the man that wielded it in the early battles of Islam, exclaimed:—"Many a time hath this sword driven care and sorrow from the Prophet's brow."

The Muslims might well mourn the memory both of Talha and Zubair, remembering how on the field of Uhud Talha had saved the life of Muhammad at the peril of his own; and how often Zubair had carried confusion into the ranks of the idolaters of Mecca. Their fall, and that of many of the Companions, was a loss to the Ummah itself, because it left the Quraish seriously weak in the struggle yet to be fought out between them and those Arab tribes responsible for all the misunderstanding and Uthman's murder.

The booty

The bearing of 'Ali was generous towards his fallen foe. Having entered the city, he divided the contents of the treasury amongst the troops which had fought on his side, promising them a still larger reward "when the Lord should have delivered Syria (Muawiyah I) into his hands."

But otherwise he treated friends and foes alike, and buried in oblivion animosities of the past. Marwan I and the adherents of the house of Banu Umayyah fled to their homes, or else found refuge in Syria and Muawiyah I. All that remained in the city swore fealty to Ali. The only class dissatisfied was that of the slaves and rabble, who murmured at having no share in the treasure, nor any chance of plunder since with the just and fair Ali at the helm plunder was ruled out. These, gathering into marauding bands, occasioned much disquietude to the Caliph, and hastened his departure from the city, with the view of checking the mischief they were bent on.

Aisha retires to Medina

Ali approached Aisha and asked her about her well being. He gave her utmost respect and asked his men to look after her and give her the respect a wife of Prophet commands.

Thus, the combat which lasted one hundred and ten days came to an end. The attachment of copies of the Qur'an on the points of spears prevented the shedding of the blood of thousands of Muslims. The great fire of instigation among Muslims was thus put out, for a small portion of time. Till the schism grew anew.

Participants

Fought together with Ali

Fought together with A'isha

Others involved

Unclassified

Battle of Bassorah

Contents